Elephant Encounter: Forest Trail Safety in India

Introduction

Ask any Indian which wild animal kills the most people here and you will hear tiger, or leopard, or snake. The answer, for large mammals, is the elephant. Elephant encounter forest trail safety in India is not a niche topic for wildlife photographers. It is basic survival knowledge for anyone walking in Wayanad, Coorg, Valparai, Nagarhole, Rajaji, Corbett, Dooars or the Assam foothills.

The Union environment ministry has put the toll at roughly 500 people and 100 elephants killed a year in human-elephant conflict. Government figures placed before Parliament run higher: 587 human deaths in 2019, 471 in 2020, 557 in 2021, 610 in 2022 and 628 in 2023. Over 2,500 deaths in five years.

You are not the typical victim. The typical victim is a farmer walking home along a field edge at night, or a villager who stepped out at 4 am. But trekkers are increasingly walking the same landscape, and a growing number of popular trails cross documented elephant corridors. This article covers what an elephant actually does before it charges, why the standard advice to run is more complicated than the internet suggests, and how to plan a trek so the question never comes up.

This is general safety guidance for trekkers, not medical advice. Elephant-inflicted injuries are trauma emergencies and need a hospital.

The Hazard: What the Numbers Say
Where Trekkers Meet Elephants in India
Elephant Corridors and Why Your Trail Crosses One
The Three Situations That Actually Kill People
Musth, Lone Tuskers and Herds With Calves
Reading an Elephant Before It Reads You
Mock Charge Versus Real Charge
Precautions: Planning the Trek
Precautions: On the Trail
Precautions: At Camp and In Vehicles
If an Elephant Is On the Trail In Front of You
If It Charges: The Escape
Injuries and Immediate Response
Common Mistakes
Best Time to Trek and Seasonal Risk
Emergency Contacts
Frequently Asked Questions
Conclusion

The Hazard: What the Numbers Say

Human-elephant conflict is the largest source of wild-animal-caused human death in India, by a wide margin.

The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change has publicly stated that around 500 people and 100 elephants die annually from this conflict. Statements in Parliament give a year-by-year picture that trends higher: 587 deaths in 2019, 471 in 2020, 557 in 2021, 610 in 2022, 628 in 2023. Government data reported in 2024 put the five-year total above 2,500.

State-wise, for 2019 to 2023: Odisha 624 deaths, Jharkhand 474, West Bengal 436, Assam 383, Chhattisgarh 303, Tamil Nadu 256, Karnataka 160, Kerala 124.

Two things follow from that distribution. First, the eastern belt (Odisha, Jharkhand, Bengal) carries the heaviest toll, driven by crop raiding in fragmented forest-farmland mosaics. Second, the Western Ghats states most familiar to Indian trekkers, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka, together account for hundreds of deaths, and Kerala in particular has seen clusters of fatalities in Wayanad and around Valparai reported in short windows.

None of that makes trekking in elephant country reckless. It makes it something to plan properly rather than wing.

Where Trekkers Meet Elephants in India

Western Ghats. Wayanad, Coorg and Kodagu, Nagarhole and Bandipur fringes, Mudumalai and the Nilgiris, Valparai and the Anamalais, Munnar and Idukki, Silent Valley buffer, and the Bhadra and Sharavathi belts in Karnataka. Plantation landscapes matter enormously here. Tea and coffee estates in Valparai and Coorg sit inside elephant range, and paths that look like garden walkways are elephant thoroughfares at night.

Uttarakhand's Terai and Bhabar belt. Rajaji Tiger Reserve and its corridors around Haridwar and Rishikesh, Corbett and the Ramnagar forest division, Lansdowne forest division. Many Garhwal trekking approaches pass through this belt on the drive in, and some hiking routes near Rishikesh, Chilla and the Ganga corridor run straight through it.

North Bengal and the Northeast. The Dooars, Buxa, Jaldapara, Gorumara, Mahananda, and across Assam, Meghalaya and Arunachal. Any walk near a tea garden edge in the Dooars is elephant terrain.

East-central India. Odisha, Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh forest tracts, where fatality numbers are highest.

Not the Sahyadris. Maharashtra's Sahyadri forts and ranges are outside resident elephant range. If you trek only in the Pune-Mumbai belt, elephants are a holiday-trip concern, not a weekend one. Occasional dispersing elephants have appeared in parts of southern Maharashtra near the Karnataka border, but this is not standard trekking country risk.

Elephant Corridors and Why Your Trail Crosses One

An elephant corridor is a strip of habitat that connects two larger elephant ranges. Herds have used many of them for generations, and elephants are creatures of route memory. They do not consult your itinerary.

The Elephant Corridors of India 2023 report, produced under Project Elephant by MoEFCC with state forest departments and technical support from the Wildlife Institute of India, ground-validated 150 elephant corridors across 15 states. The previous national listing in 2010 identified 88. Of those original 88, 74 were found still active. West Bengal has the highest count with 26 corridors, more than 17 percent of the national total. Roughly 40 percent of mapped corridors show increased elephant movement; about 29 corridors, 19 percent, show decline, mainly due to encroachment, mining and infrastructure.

What this means practically. Corridors are narrow, often squeezed between plantations, highways, railway lines and villages. An elephant inside a narrow corridor has nowhere to go sideways. If you are walking toward it in that pinch point, you have removed its escape route, and a cornered elephant is a dangerous one.

Before a trek in any of the fifteen corridor states, ask the local forest range office or your operator one specific question: does this route cross or run along a known elephant movement path, and has there been movement in the last week? Range staff usually know exactly where the herd is. They track it.

The Three Situations That Actually Kill People

Strip away the drama and elephant fatalities in India cluster into three patterns.

One: walking at night or in low light through elephant terrain. Field edges, plantation roads, forest paths between villages. The person does not see the elephant until it is close. The Valparai fatalities reported in October 2025, a grandmother and a toddler at an estate quarters, happened at around 3.30 am.

Two: surprising an elephant at close range in thick cover. Bamboo, lantana, tall elephant grass, dense plantation. Elephants are astonishingly quiet for their size. You can be fifteen metres from a herd and hear nothing.

Three: approaching for a photograph, or blocking a herd's path. This one is entirely self-inflicted and it happens to tourists constantly. Cars stopping in the middle of a crossing herd on the Bandipur or Charmadi road. People edging closer for a phone video.

Every precaution in this article traces back to preventing one of those three.

Musth, Lone Tuskers and Herds With Calves

Musth. Adult bull elephants go through periodic phases of musth, during which testosterone rises dramatically, in some measurements to many times baseline. It lasts weeks to months. A bull in musth is aggressive, unpredictable, and will attack with little or no provocation. Visible signs: a dark, wet secretion streaming from the temporal glands on the sides of the head between eye and ear, continuous dribbling of urine down the hind legs, a strong smell, and a general air of purposeful agitation.

If you see temporal streaming or urine dribbling on a lone bull, leave the area entirely. Not quietly, not slowly, just get out. This is the single highest-risk animal you can meet in an Indian forest.

Lone tuskers. In Kerala a solitary tusker is called an ottayan, and the reputation for foul temper is deserved. Lone bulls are not "outcasts"; adult males normally live apart from herds. But without herd cues, a bull is more likely to investigate, more likely to raid crops, and less predictable than a family group.

Herds with calves. A matriarch-led herd with young is defensive in a very specific way: the adults will screen the calves and will charge anything they read as a threat. Two rules. Never come between a calf and the adults, and never position yourself so the herd has to walk past you to reach water or cover. If you cannot see the whole herd, assume there is a calf and an unseen adult somewhere.

Reading an Elephant Before It Reads You

Elephants signal. Learn the signals.

Mild alert / assessing you: stops feeding, turns to face you, head up, ears held out, trunk raised and sniffing the air, one foot lifted and held. This is an elephant gathering information. Back away now, while it is still cheap.

Warning / threat display: ears fanned wide to look bigger, head shaking, dust throwing, slapping a bush with the trunk, mock lunges, trumpeting, kicking dust. This is "go away."

Committed aggression: ears pinned flat back against the body, trunk tucked or curled tightly under, head lowered, and a fast, direct, silent advance. A truly charging elephant is often quiet. The trumpeting one is usually still negotiating.

An honest caveat. Most of the ears-out versus ears-back literature comes from African elephant guiding, where the ears are huge and the cue is obvious. Asian elephants have much smaller ears and the signal is harder to read, especially in poor light and thick cover. Do not stake your life on distinguishing the two. Treat any charge as real and act accordingly.

Mock Charge Versus Real Charge

A mock charge, sometimes called a bluff or demonstration charge, is a warning. The elephant rushes forward, usually with a lot of noise, ears flared, and pulls up short, often at a distance, sometimes repeating it. Its intent is to push you back, not to reach you.

A real charge is quieter, ears back, head down, trunk curled, and does not stop.

Here is where popular advice and reality diverge. You will read that you should stand your ground for a mock charge, because running triggers pursuit and because backing down rewards the bluff. That is what professional guides do in vehicles in Africa, with a driver and an engine and an escape route.

You are on foot, in the Ghats, at dusk, alone-ish. My position: you will not reliably classify the charge, so do not build your plan around classification. Build it around never being in a position where a charge can reach you. Distance and cover, not bravado.

If you have already been caught, the practical sequence in the next two sections is what matters.

Precautions: Planning the Trek

Check with the forest range office before you go. Elephant movement is tracked. Ask if the route is currently active. In Wayanad, Valparai, Coorg, Bandipur fringe, Rajaji and Corbett belts this is a normal, expected question.
Take a local guide in elephant country. Not for the route. For the animal knowledge. A guide who works that forest knows which stretch the herd used last night.
Never trek in elephant country solo. Group size deters, and if something happens you need someone who can go for help.
Do not schedule night walks, dawn starts before first light, or late descents in resident elephant range. Almost all fatal encounters happen in darkness or half-light.
Get permissions right. Many of these landscapes require forest department permits, and permitted routes are permitted partly because they are managed.
Know your evacuation. Nearest road head, nearest hospital with trauma capability, nearest range office. Written down, offline.

Precautions: On the Trail

Make moderate, continuous noise in thick cover. Talk normally. The aim is that the elephant knows you are there long before you are close. Do not blow whistles or shout, which can be read as a challenge.
Stay on the trail. Off-trail through lantana and bamboo is how people walk into a herd.
Scan constantly and look up-slope and down-slope. Elephants stand still and grey and are astonishingly easy to miss.
Read the sign. Fresh dung, still moist and warm-looking. Broken bamboo and stripped bark. Fresh footprints in mud, and the flattened corridor of pushed-over vegetation. Fresh sign means turn around. Not "proceed carefully." Turn around.
Wind direction. If the wind is at your back the elephant smells you early, which is good. If it is in your face, they may not know you exist. Increase noise.
No headphones.
Keep the group tight. Strung-out lines put one person alone at the front and one alone at the back.
Do not carry pungent fruit, jaggery or sugarcane through elephant country, and do not eat where you stop in a plantation.
Absolutely no flash photography. A flash in low light at close range is a provocation and it destroys your own night vision at the exact second you need it.
Never feed an elephant. Elephants that associate humans with food become the ones that kill people. This applies to roadside tuskers in the Ghats too.

Precautions: At Camp and In Vehicles

Camp

Do not camp on or beside a game trail, a corridor, a plantation road, or between a herd and a water source.
Keep food sealed and away from tents. Bananas, jaggery, rice and salt are strong attractants.
Keep a fire and light going in the evening where permitted, and keep the camp audible.
Have a pre-agreed "where do we run to" point: a solid building, a vehicle, a steep bank, big trees.
Never step out of a tent at night without a torch and without listening first.

In a vehicle

Stop at a substantial distance and switch off. Do not idle up for a closer shot.
Never stop inside a crossing herd, and never drive between separated groups. That is how cars get flipped.
No horn, no flash, no revving.
Reverse away, do not turn around across the herd's path.
If an elephant approaches your stationary vehicle, reverse smoothly and keep going.

If an Elephant Is On the Trail In Front of You

Freeze first, then assess. Do not immediately move. Work out how many there are, where the calves are, and where the animal's escape route is.

Do not shout, wave or throw anything.

Give it space, at minimum 30 metres and preferably 100. Common guidance for wild elephant viewing sets 30 metres as an absolute floor and 100 metres as the sensible target. On a narrow forest trail, that means turning around.

Back away slowly and quietly the way you came. Face the animal. Do not turn your back until you have real distance and cover.

Break line of sight as soon as you can. Put a bend in the trail, a thicket, a ridge or a big tree between you. Out of sight de-escalates faster than anything else you can do.

Never approach for a photograph. Never try to walk past. Never try to squeeze around a herd on a narrow path. Wait, or go back and take a different route, even if it costs you the day.

If It Charges: The Escape

You cannot outrun an elephant on flat ground. Asian elephants have been recorded moving at speeds around 25 km/h. That is faster than almost anyone with a pack on. So the objective is never speed. It is breaking contact.

Run, but not in a straight line away from it. A straight retreat keeps you in the elephant's direct line and its momentum works entirely in its favour.

Angle off to the side and downhill wherever the terrain allows it. An elephant is heavy and cautious on steep, loose descents, and a fleeing human is more agile on broken ground. Be clear about the evidence here: this is widely repeated guiding practice rather than published government protocol, and it is not a guarantee. It is a better bet than a flat straight sprint.

Get solid obstacles between you. Big trees, boulders, a rock outcrop, a ravine, a stone wall, a building, a vehicle. Elephants push through thin cover easily and around thick cover reluctantly. This is the single most useful thing you can do.

Zigzag through broken terrain and trees. An elephant turns much less sharply than you do, and a stand of trees breaks a charge better than open ground.

Drop your rucksack. A dropped pack can distract a pursuing elephant for the seconds you need. Losing gear is an excellent trade.

Do not climb a small tree. An elephant can push it over or reach you. A tall, thick tree is a shield to hide behind, not a ladder.

Do not play dead. That is bear advice, and bad bear advice at that. It does nothing here.

Get out of the corridor entirely, not just fifty metres up the trail. Elephants move along these routes.

Injuries and Immediate Response

Elephant trauma is blunt force and crush injury: chest and abdominal trauma, pelvic and long bone fractures, head injury, internal bleeding. It looks like a road accident, because mechanically that is what it is.

Move the victim only as far as needed to get out of danger, then stop moving them.
Airway first. Recovery position if unconscious and breathing.
Assume spinal injury with any head injury or fall. Support the neck.
Control external bleeding with direct pressure.
Do not give food or water. Surgery may be needed.
Splint obvious fractures only if you must move the person.
Call 112 and 108 immediately and simultaneously send someone to the road head. Cell coverage in Wayanad, Valparai and Rajaji interior is patchy.
Target a hospital with a trauma unit and surgical capability, not a primary health centre.

Internal injury can be severe with almost nothing visible on the outside. Anyone struck by an elephant goes to hospital, even if they are walking and talking.

Common Mistakes

Assuming elephants are slow and placid. They are quick, quiet, and can move faster than you.
Stopping the car inside a crossing herd for a video.
Using flash at dusk on a forest road.
Walking a plantation path at night in Valparai, Wayanad or the Dooars. This is where people die.
Ignoring fresh dung and broken bamboo and pushing on because you are behind schedule.
Running in a straight line downtrail with the elephant directly behind you.
Climbing a thin tree.
Getting between the herd and water, or between a calf and its mother, usually by accident.
Trekking without asking the range office about current movement.
Feeding elephants, at temples, roadsides or estates. Every fed elephant becomes a future problem for someone.

Best Time to Trek and Seasonal Risk

Crop and harvest season is high-risk season. In the Western Ghats and eastern belt, elephants move toward paddy, banana, sugarcane, jackfruit and coconut as those crops ripen, which pulls them into the human-use fringes where trails, estates and villages are. Conflict deaths cluster around these movements.

Summer, March to May. Water sources shrink and elephants concentrate around remaining streams, tanks and estate reservoirs. Risk goes up sharply near water. In the Nilgiris and Anamalais this is when herds come close to habitation. Also the season with the most bull movement and musth activity in many populations.

Monsoon, June to September. Elephants disperse more widely because water and forage are everywhere. Visibility on trails collapses, undergrowth is at maximum height, and rain masks sound in both directions. Surprise encounters are the specific monsoon risk in the Ghats. Many Ghats forest routes are also closed during monsoon, and where they are closed, that is not bureaucracy, it is sense.

Post-monsoon and winter, October to February. Best trekking window in the Ghats and the Terai. Elephants are active but so is visibility. Corbett and Rajaji trekking and safari season is broadly November to June, with core zones closed through the monsoon. Dawn and dusk remain the risk hours regardless of season.

Migration windows. Corridor movement peaks at particular times of year in each landscape. There is no single national calendar for this. Ask locally, every time.

Emergency Contacts

Save these offline before you enter elephant country, and verify the district-level numbers for your specific route.

112 — National emergency number. Unified emergency number under the Ministry of Home Affairs Emergency Response Support System, deployed in all 36 states and union territories, covering police, fire and medical, with SMS and app-based access as well.
108 — Emergency ambulance. Free emergency ambulance service operating across most states and union territories through state governments and operators including GVK-EMRI, Ziqitza and BVG. Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Assam and Odisha all run 108 services. Response times in plantation and forest interiors are slow. Plan to move the patient toward the ambulance.
1926 — Forest helpline. Toll-free forest department helpline operated by several state forest departments, used for forest fires, wildlife in distress and human-wildlife conflict reporting. Availability varies by state; it is confirmed in Maharashtra and Gujarat among others.
Maharashtra Forest Department: 1926, with a reported alternative toll-free line of 1800-22-5364. Verify on mahaforest.gov.in.

For Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, West Bengal, Assam, Odisha, Jharkhand and Uttarakhand: you must look up the district or division-level Forest Department control room, and the local Range Forest Officer's number, on the official state forest department website before your trip, and save it offline. These numbers are division-specific and change; printing an unverified number here would be actively dangerous. Kerala's forest department publishes division contacts at forest.kerala.gov.in. Rapid Response Teams exist in most high-conflict divisions in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Bengal, and the range office is how you reach them.

Hospital guidance. For elephant trauma you need a hospital with an emergency surgical unit, not a PHC or an estate dispensary. Practical anchors, to be confirmed for your route: for Wayanad, the district hospital at Mananthavady or Kalpetta with escalation to Kozhikode Medical College. For Valparai and the Anamalais, Coimbatore. For Coorg and Kodagu, Madikeri district hospital with escalation to Mysuru. For the Nilgiris, Ooty and then Coimbatore. For Rajaji and Corbett, AIIMS Rishikesh and the Haldwani or Ramnagar hospitals. For the Dooars, Siliguri.

Frequently Asked Questions

Q1. Do wild elephants really kill more people in India than tigers or leopards? Yes. The Union environment ministry has stated that around 500 people die a year in human-elephant conflict, and figures given in Parliament show 587 deaths in 2019 rising to 628 in 2023, with over 2,500 deaths in five years. That is far above the toll from any other wild animal in India.

Q2. Should I stand still or run if an elephant charges? Stand still while it is only displaying, back away, and break line of sight. If it commits to a real charge, run at an angle rather than straight ahead, use downhill and broken ground where you can, and put solid obstacles like large trees, boulders or a building between you. Do not try to outrun it in the open; Asian elephants have been recorded around 25 km/h.

Q3. Why is flash photography dangerous with elephants? A flash at close range in low light is a sudden, aggressive-looking stimulus to an animal that is already deciding whether you are a threat, and it wrecks your own night vision precisely when you need to move. There is no version of this that is worth the picture.

Q4. Are there elephants in the Sahyadris around Mumbai and Pune? No resident population. Maharashtra's Sahyadri trekking belt is outside standard elephant range, though dispersing individuals have occasionally been reported in the far south of the state near the Karnataka border. Elephant safety is a South India, Bengal, Northeast and Uttarakhand concern.

Q5. What is an elephant corridor and how do I know if my trek crosses one? It is a habitat strip connecting two elephant ranges, used repeatedly by herds. The Elephant Corridors of India 2023 report under Project Elephant ground-validated 150 corridors across 15 states. The reliable way to know is to ask the local forest range office before your trek. They track current movement.

Q6. How do I recognise a bull in musth? Look for dark wet secretion from the temporal glands on the side of the head, continuous urine dribbling down the hind legs, a strong smell, and agitated behaviour. Testosterone rises dramatically during musth and the animal becomes aggressive and unpredictable. If you see these signs, leave the area completely.

Q7. Is it safe to trek in Wayanad, Valparai or Coorg at all? Yes, with planning. Use a local guide, trek only in daylight, check current elephant movement with the range office, stay on permitted routes, and never walk plantation paths at night. Fatal incidents in these landscapes cluster heavily in darkness and at close-quarter surprise encounters.

Q8. What should I do if an elephant blocks the only trail out? Wait, at distance, out of sight. Elephants move on. Do not attempt to squeeze past, do not try to drive it off, and do not wait until dark. If it has not moved and light is fading, call the range office and take the longer alternative route or return to your start point.

Conclusion

Elephants are not aggressive animals. They are enormous, intelligent, socially complex, and mostly trying to eat, drink and move between forest patches without running into us. The deaths happen where those needs collide with our roads, crops, plantations and trails, in the dark, at close range.

Trekkers get a real advantage here: almost every fatal mechanism is avoidable by choice. Walk in daylight. Ask the range office. Take a guide. Stay on the trail and make yourself audible in thick cover. Turn around at fresh sign. Give any elephant you see 100 metres and get out of its line of sight.

If it comes at you, forget everything except this: angle away, get downhill and into broken ground if you can, put something solid between you, drop your pack. Then get out of the corridor.

Call to Action

Planning Wayanad, Coorg, Valparai, the Nilgiris, the Dooars or a Rajaji-Corbett trip? Before you book, call the local forest range office and ask two questions: is this route currently active for elephant movement, and can they recommend a local guide. Then save 112, 108, the division control room and your nearest trauma hospital offline.

Image Alt Text Suggestions

Wild Asian elephant herd crossing a forest road in the Western Ghats at dusk
Lone tusker standing in tea estate undergrowth near Valparai
Fresh elephant dung and broken bamboo as trail sign in a Wayanad forest
Bull elephant showing temporal gland secretion during musth
Elephant corridor signboard at a forest division boundary in Karnataka
Elephant footprint in wet mud on a plantation track in Coorg
Trekking group standing well back and out of sight behind large trees
Elephant with ears fanned wide in a warning display on a forest edge
Mother elephant screening a calf within a herd in Nagarhole
Forest range office signboard listing wildlife emergency contact numbers

Sources

Over 2,500 people died in 5 years in human-elephant conflicts: Government data, Business Standard — https://www.business-standard.com/india-news/over-2-500-people-died-in-5-years-in-human-elephant-conflicts-govt-data-124072600517_1.html
500 people and 100 elephants die due to conflict each year: Centre, Hindustan Times — https://www.pressreader.com/india/hindustan-times-delhi/20200811/282050509417692
Elephant Corridors of India 2023, Project Elephant, Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change with the Wildlife Institute of India — https://moef.gov.in/uploads/2023/11/PE-Elephant-Corridor-of-India-2023.pdf
60 new elephant corridors identified across country, count reaches 150, ANI — https://aninews.in/news/national/general-news/60-new-elephant-corridors-identified-across-country-count-reaches-15020230824164309/
Year and state-wise number of human deaths due to tiger and elephant attacks (Rajya Sabha data), Dataful — https://dataful.in/datasets/19542/
Massive toll of elephant deaths in India, MoEFCC data summary — https://civils.pteducation.com/2021/12/Massive-toll-of-elephant-deaths-in-India-MoEFCC-Prelims-UPSCMainsGSIII-Essaypaper-Biodiversity-Reports-IndicesandStatistics-SocialIssues-EnvironmentandEcology-GovernmentSchemes.html
Grandmother, toddler killed in wild elephant attack in Valparai, Onmanorama — https://www.onmanorama.com/news/kerala/2025/10/13/valparai-elephant-attack-grandmother-child-killed.html
Kerala records 4 deaths due to wild elephant attacks in a week, Onmanorama — https://www.onmanorama.com/news/kerala/2025/02/12/wayanad-man-killed-in-wild-elephant-attack.html
Everything You Need To Know About Musth, Wildlife SOS — https://news.wildlifesos.org/everything-you-need-to-know-about-musth/
Shrinking Elephant Corridors of India, Wildlife SOS — https://news.wildlifesos.org/shrinking-elephant-corridors-of-india/
Are fast-moving elephants really running?, Nature — https://www.nature.com/articles/422493a
Reframing human-elephant conflict in India through context-dependent coexistence strategies, Frontiers in Conservation Science — https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/conservation-science/articles/10.3389/fcosc.2026.1762380/full
Elephant Reserves, Kerala Forest Department — https://forest.kerala.gov.in/en/elephant-reserves/
Emergency Response Support System (ERSS) 112, Ministry of Home Affairs — https://www.mha.gov.in/en/commoncontent/emergency-response-support-system-erss
108 Emergency Response Service, Emergency Management and Research Institute — https://www.emri.in/108-emergency/
Maharashtra Forest Department contact details — https://mahaforest.gov.in/index.php/contactdetails/index/RmVZb3EvWkZWUHhU/en

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